Publication Type

Journal Article

Version

publishedVersion

Publication Date

7-2026

Abstract

Modern artificial intelligence (AI) systems act with a high degree of independence yet lack legal personhood—a paradox that fractures doctrines grounded in human-centric notions of mens rea and actus reus. This Article introduces Operational Agency (OA)—a permeable legal fiction structured as an ex post evidentiary framework—and Operational Agency Graph (OAG)—a tool for mapping causal interactions among human actors, organizations, and AI systems. OA evaluates an AI’s observable operational characteristics: its goal-directedness (as a proxy for intent), predictive processing (as a proxy for foresight), and safety architecture (as a proxy for standard of care). OAG operationalizes that analysis by embedding these characteristics in a causal graph to trace and apportion culpability among developers, fine-tuners, deployers, and users. Drawing on corporate criminal liability, the innocent-agent doctrine, and secondary and vicarious liability frameworks, the Article shows how OA and OAG strengthen existing doctrines. Across five real-world case studies spanning tort, civil rights, constitutional law, and antitrust, it demonstrates how they offer courts a principled evidentiary method to address issues ranging from autonomous vehicle collisions to algorithmic price-fixing. OA and OAG provide legislatures and industry with a clear conceptual approach to maintaining human accountability as technology becomes more autonomous, without conferring legal personhood on AI.

Discipline

Artificial Intelligence and Robotics | Science and Technology Law | Technology and Innovation

Research Areas

Marketing

Areas of Excellence

Digital transformation

Publication

SMU Science and Technology Law Review

Volume

XXIX

Issue

1

First Page

163

Last Page

232

ISSN

1949-2642

Identifier

10.25172/smustlr.29.1.4

Additional URL

https://doi.org/10.25172/smustlr.29.1.4

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